Comparative Analysis of Quantum and Classical Computing: Performance, Error Rates, and Hybrid Architectures

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.4108/eetiot.11029

Keywords:

Algorithmic complexity analysis, Classical computing, Hybrid quantum-classical models, postquantum cryptography, Quantum computing, Quantum error correction

Abstract

Classical computing is approaching its physical limits, so quantum computing as an alternative model requires careful evaluation. This study compares various aspects of two systems by looking at formal algorithmic complexity, simulation-based comparisons with realistic noise models, quantitative meta-analysis, figuring out the difference between physical and logical error rates, and clearly defining contributions. A thorough study examined 24,100 papers published between 2015 and 2024 from leading scientific databases. A study of algorithmic complexity using Big-O notation confirmed that Shor's algorithm is faster than standard O(exp((64/9)²/³ (log N)²/³ (log log N)²/³)) by a super polynomial factor, Grover's algorithm is faster by a quadratic factor (O(√N) versus O(N)), and quantum simulation is faster by an exponential factor. There were Five quantum machines exhibited physical error rates ranging from 10⁻² to 10⁻⁵. Simulation-based testing revealed that the quantum advantage emerges above certain complexity thresholds: at extremely high complexity, quantum processing reached 10.3 μs versus 40.2 μs for classical computing, with better error resistance (2.3% for quantum vs. 5.9% for classical). Quantum computing has real benefits in terms of speed, mistake tolerance, and energy economy for problems that are too complicated to solve with traditional methods. However, significant challenges remain in scalability and workforce development. Hybrid quantum-classical models offer the most promising path to near-term practical benefits. On the other hand, the shift to postquantum security needs instant attention, regardless of when quantum hardware will be available.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

  • Gabriel Silva Atencio, Universidad Latinoamericana de Ciencia y Tecnología

    Dr. Gabriel Alejandro Silva Atencio is a strategic leader and academic with a renowned international career and a unique profile that combines senior management positions in multinational technology companies such as VMware and Ericsson with solid experience as a teacher and researcher at institutions such as ULACT, TEC, UCR, Lead University, and INCAE. He holds a PhD in Business Management, an MBA from INCAE, and more than 60 certifications from organizations such as ISACA, PECB, COMPTIA, EC-Council, PMI, among others. He is an expert in the areas of quantum computing, artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and digital transformation. His influence extends through indexed scientific publications, participation as an expert in the media, and the coordination of postgraduate programs, consolidating him as a key agent of change for technological innovation and business competitiveness in the fifth industrial revolution.

     

References

[1] M. S. Lundstrom and M. A. Alam, "Moore’s law: The journey ahead," Science, vol. 378, no. 6621, pp. 722–723, 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade2191.

[2] X. Cao, "Moore's Law and Endless Desires," Modern Business Management, pp. 59–65, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-0594-1_7.

[3] A. Newitz, "The trouble with Moore's law," New Scientist, vol. 265, no. 3533, p. 18, 2025/03/08/ 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0262-4079(25)00383-5.

[4] D. S. Simon, "Quantum Bits and Quantum Information," Introduction to Quantum Science and Technology, pp. 381–393, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-81315-3_12.

[5] M. Akrom et al., "Quantum machine learning for corrosion resistance in stainless steel," Materials Today Quantum, vol. 3, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtquan.2024.100013.

[6] R. Au-Yeung, B. Camino, O. Rathore, and V. Kendon, "Quantum algorithms for scientific computing," Reports on Progress in Physics, vol. 87, no. 11, p. 116001, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6633/ad85f0.

[7] Z. Wang, L. Huang, S. Yang, D. Li, D. He, and S. Chan, "A quasi-oppositional learning of updating quantum state and Q-learning based on the dung beetle algorithm for global optimization," Alexandria Engineering Journal, vol. 81, pp. 469–488, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.09.042.

[8] M. Fellous-Asiani, J. H. Chai, R. S. Whitney, A. Auffèves, and H. K. Ng, "Limitations in quantum computing from resource constraints," PRX Quantum, vol. 2, no. 4, p. 040335, 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1103/PRXQuantum.2.040335?_gl=1*1wh8ob5*_ga*MjkxNjM5NDkuMTc0MzI2NTk5OA..*_ga_ZS5V2B2DR1*MTc0MzM0MjQwOC4zLjEuMTc0MzM0NDAzMC4wLjAuMzg2MjQzNTE3.

[9] C.-F. A. Chen, A. Lucas, and C. Yin, "Speed limits and locality in many-body quantum dynamics," Reports on Progress in Physics, vol. 86, no. 11, p. 116001, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6633/acfaae.

[10] Z. Cai et al., "Quantum error mitigation," Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 95, no. 4, p. 045005, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.95.045005?_gl=1*1jnpd58*_ga*MjkxNjM5NDkuMTc0MzI2NTk5OA..*_ga_ZS5V2B2DR1*MTc0MzI2NTk5Ny4xLjEuMTc0MzI2NjUxNS4wLjAuMTYwNzU5NDI0Nw.

[11] H. Zhong et al., "Tuning Quantum Computing Privacy through Quantum Error Correction," GLOBECOM 2024 - 2024 IEEE Global Communications Conference, pp. 3986–3991, 8–12 Dec. 2024 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/GLOBECOM52923.2024.10901324.

[12] D. Gottesman, "Opportunities and challenges in fault-tolerant quantum computation," arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.15844, 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2210.15844.

[13] M. W. Geda and Y. M. Tang, "Adaptive hybrid quantum-classical computing framework for deep space exploration mission applications," Journal of Industrial Information Integration, vol. 44, p. 100803, 2025/03/01/ 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jii.2025.100803.

[14] L. Fan and Z. Han, "Hybrid Quantum-Classical Computing for Future Network Optimization," IEEE Network, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 72–76, 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/MNET.001.2200150.

[15] Z. Bi, X. Yang, B. Wang, W. Zhang, Z. Dong, and D. Zhang, "Quantum annealing algorithm for fault section location in distribution networks," Applied Soft Computing, vol. 149, p. 110973, 2023/12/01/ 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2023.110973.

[16] T. Marwala, "Digital Versus Quantum Computing," The Balancing Problem in the Governance of Artificial Intelligence, pp. 153–169, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9251-1_10.

[17] A. J. Daley et al., "Practical quantum advantage in quantum simulation," Nature, vol. 607, no. 7920, pp. 667–676, 2022/07/01 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04940-6.

[18] E. Campbell, "A series of fast-paced advances in Quantum Error Correction," Nature Reviews Physics, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 160–161, 2024/03/01 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-024-00706-3.

[19] U. U. Shinde and R. Bandaru, "Quantum error-correction using humming sparrow optimization based self-adaptive deep cnn noise correction module," Scientific Reports, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 14289, 2024/06/21 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65182-2.

[20] R. K. Kanna and A. O. Salau, "New cognitive computational strategy for optimizing brain tumour classification using magnetic resonance imaging Data," Intelligence-Based Medicine, vol. 11, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibmed.2025.100215.

[21] J. U. Rehman et al., "Evolutionary Algorithms and Quantum Computing: Recent Advances, Opportunities, and Challenges," IEEE Access, vol. 13, pp. 16649–16670, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3530952.

[22] H. Shapourian et al., "Quantum Data Center Infrastructures: A Scalable Architectural Design Perspective," arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.05598, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2501.05598.

[23] L. Wörner et al., "Quantum Network Infrastructure," Advanced Quantum Technologies, p. 2300415, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/qute.202300415.

[24] A. D. King et al., "Beyond-classical computation in quantum simulation," Science, p. eado6285, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ado6285.

[25] M. S. Akash and S. A. Jamema, "Quantum supremacy and its implications for classical computing," World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 036–041, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjaets.2025.14.2.0032.

[26] H. Riel, "Quantum Computing Technology," 2021 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM), pp. 1.3.1–1.3.7, 11–16 Dec. 2021 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/IEDM19574.2021.9720538.

[27] H. Urgelles, S. Maheshwari, S. S. Nande, R. Bassoli, F. H. P. Fitzek, and J. F. Monserrat, "In‐Network Quantum Computing for Future 6G Networks," Advanced Quantum Technologies, vol. 8, no. 2, p. 2300334, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/qute.202300334.

[28] V. V. Sivak et al., "Real-time quantum error correction beyond break-even," Nature, vol. 616, no. 7955, pp. 50–55, 2023/04/01 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05782-6.

[29] D. Jaschke and S. Montangero, "Is quantum computing green? An estimate for an energy-efficiency quantum advantage," Quantum Science and Technology, vol. 8, no. 2, p. 025001, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/2058-9565/acae3e.

[30] A. Di Meglio et al., "Quantum computing for high-energy physics: State of the art and challenges," PRX Quantum, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 037001, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1103/PRXQuantum.5.037001?_gl=1*13k4ckk*_ga*MjkxNjM5NDkuMTc0MzI2NTk5OA..*_ga_ZS5V2B2DR1*MTc0MzI2NTk5Ny4xLjAuMTc0MzI2NTk5Ny4wLjAuMTYwNzU5NDI0Nw.

[31] P. R. Babu, S. A. P. Kumar, A. G. Reddy, and A. K. Das, "Quantum secure authentication and key agreement protocols for IoT-enabled applications: A comprehensive survey and open challenges," Computer Science Review, vol. 54, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosrev.2024.100676.

[32] J. Oliva del Moral, A. deMarti iOlius, G. Vidal, P. M. Crespo, and J. Etxezarreta Martinez, "Cybersecurity in Critical Infrastructures: A Post-Quantum Cryptography Perspective," IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 11, no. 18, pp. 30217–30244, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2024.3410702.

[33] Z. Yang, Q. Shi, T. Cheng, X. Wang, R. Zhang, and L. Yu, "A security-enhanced authentication scheme for quantum-key-distribution (QKD) enabled Internet of vehicles in multi-cloud environment," Vehicular Communications, vol. 48, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vehcom.2024.100789.

[34] E. Al-Mansor, M. Al-Jabbar, A. Ben Ishak, and S. Abdel-Khalek, "Medical image edge detection in the framework of quantum representations," Alexandria Engineering Journal, vol. 81, pp. 234–242, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2023.09.008.

[35] S. Golestan, M. R. Habibi, S. Y. Mousazadeh Mousavi, J. M. Guerrero, and J. C. Vasquez, "Quantum computation in power systems: An overview of recent advances," Energy Reports, vol. 9, pp. 584–596, 2023/12/01/ 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.11.185.

[36] J. Śliwa and K. Wrona, "Quantum Computing Application Opportunities in Military Scenarios," 2023 International Conference on Military Communications and Information Systems (ICMCIS), pp. 1–10, 16–17 May 2023 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICMCIS59922.2023.10253492.

[37] R. Saini, A. Bera, B. K. Behera, E. A. Ahmed, M. Jamjoom, and A. Farouk, "Designing quantum blockchain system integrated with 6G network," Journal of King Saud University - Computer and Information Sciences, vol. 35, no. 10, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2023.101847.

[38] F. Wu, X. Xu, M. Bilal, X. Wang, H. K. Cheng, and S. Wu, "VEC-Sim: A simulation platform for evaluating service caching and computation offloading policies in Vehicular Edge Networks," Computer Networks, vol. 257, 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110985.

[39] M. Istanbullu, A. Fernando, and M. Omar, "Research on an Industrial Internet Data Encryption Architecture Based on Quantum Key Distribution," Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Machine Learning and Automation, CONF-MLA 2024, 2024, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.21-11-2024.2354643.

[40] M. Diop, P. Ndiaye, D. Dione, and I. Diop, "IoT Security in the Quantum Era: State of the Art and Open Challenges," 2025 5th International Conference on Innovative Research in Applied Science, Engineering and Technology (IRASET), pp. 1–11, 15–16 May 2025 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/IRASET64571.2025.11008105.

[41] S. Chapman and G. Policastro, "Quantum computational complexity from quantum information to black holes and back," The European Physical Journal C, vol. 82, no. 2, p. 128, 2022/02/10 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-022-10037-1.

[42] E. Altman et al., "Quantum simulators: Architectures and opportunities," PRX quantum, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 017003, 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1103/PRXQuantum.2.017003?_gl=1*2lgxq3*_ga*MjkxNjM5NDkuMTc0MzI2NTk5OA..*_ga_ZS5V2B2DR1*MTc0MzM0MjQwOC4zLjAuMTc0MzM0MjQwOC4wLjAuMzg2MjQzNTE3.

[43] R. Uppu, L. Midolo, X. Zhou, J. Carolan, and P. Lodahl, "Quantum-dot-based deterministic photon–emitter interfaces for scalable photonic quantum technology," Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 16, no. 12, pp. 1308–1317, 2021/12/01 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-021-00965-6.

[44] M. A. Khan, M. N. Aman, and B. Sikdar, "Beyond Bits: A Review of Quantum Embedding Techniques for Efficient Information Processing," IEEE Access, vol. 12, pp. 46118–46137, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3382150.

[45] J. Fraxanet, T. Salamon, and M. Lewenstein, "The Coming Decades of Quantum Simulation," Sketches of Physics: The Celebration Collection, pp. 85–125, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32469-7_4.

[46] Y. Zhou et al., "Quantum computing in power systems," iEnergy, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 170–187, 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.23919/IEN.2022.0021.

[47] Q. A. Memon, M. Al Ahmad, and M. Pecht, "Quantum computing: navigating the future of computation, challenges, and technological breakthroughs," Quantum Reports, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 627–663, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/quantum6040039.

[48] G. Gordon, "Digital sovereignty, digital infrastructures, and quantum horizons," AI & SOCIETY, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 125–137, 2024/02/01 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-023-01729-7.

[49] M. Rawat, J. Mahajan, P. Jain, A. Banerjee, C. Oza, and A. Saxena, "Quantum Computing: Navigating The Technological Landscape for Future Advancements," 2024 International Conference on Trends in Quantum Computing and Emerging Business Technologies, pp. 1–5, 22–23 March 2024 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/TQCEBT59414.2024.10545252.

[50] M. T. Naz, W. Elmedany, and M. Ali, "Securing SCADA systems in smart grids with IoT integration: A Self-Defensive Post-Quantum Blockchain Architecture," Internet of Things, vol. 28, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2024.101381.

[51] C. Delle Donne et al., "An operating system for executing applications on quantum network nodes," Nature, vol. 639, no. 8054, pp. 321–328, 2025/03/01 2025, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08704-w.

[52] Ö. Salehi, Z. Seskir, and İ. Tepe, "A Computer Science-Oriented Approach to Introduce Quantum Computing to a New Audience," IEEE Transactions on Education, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 1–8, 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/TE.2021.3078552.

Downloads

Published

16-04-2026

Issue

Vol. 11 (2025): EAI Endorsed Transactions on Internet of Things

Section

Research article

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Gabriel Silva Atencio

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 license, which permits unlimited use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium so long as the original work is properly cited.

How to Cite

1.
Silva Atencio G. Comparative Analysis of Quantum and Classical Computing: Performance, Error Rates, and Hybrid Architectures. EAI Endorsed Trans IoT [Internet]. 2026 Apr. 16 [cited 2026 Apr. 16];11. Available from: https://publications.eai.eu/index.php/IoT/article/view/11029

Most read articles by the same author(s)